You will consider the way in
which a text is constructed to create meaning for a viewer.
- Key words: Connotations. Semiotics. Context.
L/O: Develop your analytical skills in examining symbols for what they mean.
Denotation: What is actually in the image
Connotation: What the actual image means (hidden meaning)
Always think of the following process when you are about to analyse an image:
Denotation: What is actually in the image
Connotation: What the actual image means (hidden meaning)
Always think of the following process when you are about to analyse an image:
Image
Denotation
What do you see in the image?
Connotation
What do you think the denotation of the image means?
Signification
How and what meaning is it communicating?
Here are some other words that are important when it comes to image analysis:
Signification: How the image communicates meaning
Semiotics The study of signs and symbols
In media studies the first thing we must do is look at what is in the image.
This is called denotation.
Then we must look at what the image actually means.
This is called connotation.
Only then we can say what the image signifies by referring to the signs and symbols being used, they are called semiotics.
Task1:
Look at the following symbols and signs then then go through the process of denotation and connotation. Create a table on a word doc like the one below, print off and submit.
Look at the following symbols and signs then then go through the process of denotation and connotation. Create a table on a word doc like the one below, print off and submit.
fig: a
Fig. b
Fig. c
Fig. d
Fig. e
Fig
|
Denotation
|
Connotation and Signification
|
Media literacy is a set of skills that anyone can learn. Just as literacy is the ability to read and write,
media literacy refers to the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and create media messages of all
kinds.
These are essential skills in today's world. Today, many people get most of their information through
complex combinations of text, images and sounds. We need to be able to navigate this complex
media environment, to make sense of the media messages that bombard us every day, and to
express ourselves using a variety of media tools and technologies.
Media literacy skills can help us to
• Understand how media messages create meaning
• Identify who created a particular media message
• Recognize what the media maker wants us to believe or do
• Name the "tools of persuasion" used
• Recognize bias, spin, misinformation and lies
• Discover the part of the story that's not being told
• Evaluate media messages based on our own experiences, beliefs and values
• Create and distribute our own media messages
• Become advocates for change in our media system
Media Literacy Concepts
Basic concepts:
1. Media construct our culture. Our society and culture – even our perception of reality - is shaped
by the information and images we receive via the media. A few generations ago, our culture’s
storytellers were people – family, friends, and others in our community. For many people today, the
most powerful storytellers are television, movies, music, video games, and the Internet.
2. Media messages affect our thoughts, attitudes and actions. We don’t like to admit it, but all of
us are affected by advertising, news, movies, pop music, video games, and other forms of media.
That’s why media are such a powerful cultural force, and why the media industry is such big
business.
3. Media use “the language of persuasion.” All media messages try to persuade us to believe or
do something. News, documentary films, and nonfiction books all claim to be telling the truth.
Advertising tries to get us to buy products. Novels and TV dramas go to great lengths to appear
realistic. To do this, they use specific techniques (like flattery, repetition, fear, and humor) we call “the
language of persuasion.”
4. Media construct fantasy worlds. While fantasy can be pleasurable and entertaining, it can also
be harmful. Movies, TV shows, and music videos sometimes inspire people to do things that are
unwise, anti-social, or even dangerous. At other times, media can inspire our imagination. Advertising
constructs a fantasy world where all problems can be solved with a purchase. Media literacy helps
people to recognize fantasy and constructively integrate it with reality.
5. No one tells the whole story. Every media maker has a point of view. Every good story highlights
some information and leaves out the rest. Often, the effect of a media message comes not only from
what is said, but from what part of the story is not told.
6. Media messages contain “texts” and “subtexts.” The text is the actual words, pictures and/or
sounds in a media message. The subtext is the hidden and underlying meaning of the message.
7. Media messages reflect the values and viewpoints of media makers. Everyone has a point of
view. Our values and viewpoints influence our choice of words, sounds and images we use to
communicate through media. This is true for all media makers, from a preschooler’s crayon drawing
to a media conglomerate’s TV news broadcast.
8. Individuals construct their own meanings from media. Although media makers attempt to
convey specific messages, people receive and interpret them differently, based on their own prior
knowledge and experience, their values, and their beliefs. This means that people can create different
subtexts from the same piece of media. All meanings and interpretations are valid and should be
respected.
9. Media messages can be decoded. By “deconstructing” media, we can figure out who created the
message, and why. We can identify the techniques of persuasion being used and recognize how
media makers are trying to influence us. We notice what parts of the story are not being told, and how
we can become better informed.
10. Media literate youth and adults are active consumers of media. Many forms of media – like
television – seek to create passive, impulsive consumers. Media literacy helps people consume
media with a critical eye, evaluating sources, intended purposes, persuasion techniques, and deeper
meanings.
The Language of Persuasion
Hollywood movies use expensive special effects to make us believe that what we’re seeing is real.
News stories use several techniques – such as direct quotation of identified sources – to make us
believe that the story is accurate.
The media messages most concerned with persuading us are found in advertising, public relations
and advocacy. Commercial advertising tries to persuade us to buy a product or service. Public
relations (PR) "sells" us a positive image of a corporation, government or organization. Politicians and
advocacy groups (groups that support a particular belief, point of view, policy, or action) try to
persuade us to vote for or support them, using ads, speeches, newsletters, websites, and other
means.
These "persuaders" use a variety of techniques to grab our attention, to establish credibility and trust,
to stimulate desire for the product or policy, and to motivate us to act (buy, vote, give money, etc.)
We call these techniques the "language of persuasion.” They’re not new; Aristotle wrote about
persuasion techniques more than 2000 years ago, and they’ve been used by speakers, writers, and
media makers for even longer than that.
Learning the language of persuasion is an important media literacy skill. Once you know how media
messages try to persuade you to believe or do something, you’ll be better able to make your own
decisions.
Basic persuasion techniques
1. Association. This persuasion technique tries to link a product, service, or idea with something
already liked or desired by the target audience, such as fun, pleasure, beauty, security, intimacy,
success, wealth, etc. The media message doesn’t make explicit claims that you’ll get these things;
the association is implied. Association can be a very powerful technique. A good ad can create a
strong emotional response and then associate that feeling with a brand (family = Coke, victory =
Nike). This process is known as emotional transfer. Several of the persuasion techniques below, like
Beautiful people, Warm & fuzzy, Symbols and Nostalgia, are specific types of association.
2. Bandwagon. Many ads show lots of people using the product, implying that "everyone is doing
it" (or at least, "all the cool people are doing it"). No one likes to be left out or left behind, and these
ads urge us to "jump on the bandwagon.” Politicians use the same technique when they say, "The
American people want..." How do they know?
3. Beautiful people. Beautiful people uses good-looking models (who may also be celebrities) to
attract our attention. This technique is extremely common in ads, which may also imply (but never
promise!) that we’ll look like the models if we use the product.
4. Bribery. This technique tries to persuade us to buy a product by promising to give us something
else, like a discount, a rebate, a coupon, or a "free gift.” Sales, special offers, contests, and
sweepstakes are all forms of bribery. Unfortunately, we don’t really get something for free -- part of
the sales price covers the cost of the bribe.
5. Celebrities. (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Plain folks.) We tend to pay attention to
famous people. That’s why they’re famous! Ads often use celebrities to grab our attention. By
appearing in an ad, celebrities implicitly endorse a product; sometimes the endorsement is explicit.
Many people know that companies pay celebrities a lot of money to appear in their ads (Nike’s huge
contracts with leading athletes, for example, are well known) but this type of testimonial still seems to
be effective.
6. Experts. (A type of Testimonial.) We rely on experts to advise us about things that we don’t
know ourselves. Scientists, doctors, professors and other professionals often appear in ads and
advocacy messages, lending their credibility to the product, service, or idea being sold. Sometimes,
“plain folks” can also be experts, as when a mother endorses a brand of baby powder or a
construction worker endorses a treatment for sore muscles.
7. Explicit claims. Something is "explicit" if it is directly, fully, and/or clearly expressed or
demonstrated. For example, some ads state the price of a product, the main ingredients, where it
was made, or the number of items in the package – these are explicit claims. So are specific,
measurable promises about quality, effectiveness, or reliability, like “Works in only five minutes!”
Explicit claims can be proven true or false through close examination or testing, and if they’re false,
the advertiser can get in trouble. It can be surprising to learn how few ads make explicit claims. Most
of them try to persuade us in ways that cannot be proved or disproved.
8. Fear. This is the opposite of the Association technique. It uses something disliked or feared by
the intended audience (like bad breath, failure, high taxes or terrorism) to promote a "solution.” Ads
use fear to sell us products that claim to prevent or fix the problem. Politicians and advocacy groups
stoke our fears to get elected or to gain support.
9. Humor. Many ads use humor because it grabs our attention and it’s a powerful persuasion
technique. When we laugh, we feel good. Advertisers make us laugh and then show us their product
or logo because they’re trying to connect that good feeling to their product. They hope that when we
see their product in a store, we’ll subtly re-experience that good feeling and select their product.
Advocacy messages (and news) rarely use humor because it can undermine their credibility; an
exception is political satire.
10. Intensity. The language of ads is full of intensifiers, including superlatives (greatest, best, most,
fastest, lowest prices), comparatives (more, better than, improved, increased, fewer calories),
hyperbole (amazing, incredible, forever), exaggeration, and many other ways to hype the product.
11. Maybe. Unproven, exaggerated or outrageous claims are commonly preceded by "weasel
words" such as may, might, can, could, some, many, often, virtually, as many as, or up to. Watch for
these words if an offer seems too good to be true. Commonly, the Intensity and Maybe techniques
are used together, making the whole thing meaningless.
12. Plain folks. (A type of Testimonial – the opposite of Celebrities.) This technique works
because we may believe a "regular person" more than an intellectual or a highly-paid celebrity. It’s
often used to sell everyday products like laundry detergent because we can more easily see
ourselves using the product, too. The Plain folks technique strengthens the down-home, "authentic"
image of products like pickup trucks and politicians. Unfortunately, most of the "plain folks" in ads are
actually paid actors carefully selected because they look like "regular people.”
13. Repetition. Advertisers use repetition in two ways: Within an ad or advocacy message, words,
sounds or images may be repeated to reinforce the main point. And the message itself (a TV
commercial, a billboard, a website banner ad) may be displayed many times. Even unpleasant ads
and political slogans work if they are repeated enough to pound their message into our minds.
14. Testimonials. Media messages often show people testifying about the value or quality of a
product, or endorsing an idea. They can be experts, celebrities, or plain folks. We tend to believe
them because they appear to be a neutral third party (a pop star, for example, not the lipstick maker,
or a community member instead of the politician running for office.) This technique works best when
it seems like the person “testifying” is doing so because they genuinely like the product or agree with
the idea. Some testimonials may be less effective when we recognize that the person is getting paid
to endorse the product.
15. Warm & fuzzy. This technique uses sentimental images (especially of families, kids and
animals) to stimulate feelings of pleasure, comfort, and delight. It may also include the use of
soothing music, pleasant voices, and evocative words like "cozy" or "cuddly.” The Warm & fuzzy technique is another form of Association. It works well with some audiences, but not with others, who
may find it too corny.
Text & Subtext
Text
We often use the word “text” to mean “written
meaning. The text of any piece of media is what you actually see and/or hear. It can include written
or spoken words, pictures, graphics, moving images, sounds, and the arrangement or sequence of
of these elements. Sometimes the text is called the “story” or “manifest text.” For most of us, the text
of a piece of media is always the same.
Subtext
The “subtext” is your interpretation of a piece of media. It is sometimes called the “latent text.” The
subtext is not actually heard or seen; it is the meaning we create from the
While media makers (especially advertisers) often create texts that suggest certain subtexts, each
person creates their own subtext (interpretation) based on their previous experiences, knowledge,
opinions, attitudes and values. Thus, the subtext of a piece of media will vary depending on the
individual seeing/hearing it
The text of this media message includes:
An image of musician Sheryl Crow holding a guitar case and a
glass of milk in a room with a lamp, bed, open door, etc. behind
her.
The logo “got milk?” and the words “Rock hard.”
The short paragraph: “To keep the crowd on their feet, I keep
my body in tune. With milk. Studies suggest that the nutrients in
milk can play an important role in weight loss. So if you’re trying to
lose weight or maintain a healthy weight, try drinking 24 ounces of
lowfat or fat free milk every 24 hours as part of your reduced
calorie diet. To learn more, visit 2424milk.com. It’s a change that’ll
do you good.”
Another logo that reads “milk. your diet. Lose weight! 24 oz. 24
hours”
A small image of Sheryl Crow’s album Wildflower.
Possible subtexts include:
Sheryl Crow drinks milk.
Sheryl Crow can only perform well by drinking milk.
Sheryl Crow wants to sell her album.
Milk renders great concerts.
If you drink milk you will lose weight.
Beautiful people drink milk.
If you drink milk, you’ll be beautiful and famous, too.
Sheryl Crow stays at cheap motels.
Rock stars like ripped jeans
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