MS 1: Media Representations and Receptions
It is likely that the teaching of this subject will begin with the study of texts and from
this develop into a study of the issues represented in texts and how audiences respond
to texts and the representation issues they raise.
According to the Specification, for this unit, students will be expected to demonstrate:
- Their ability to examine a media text in detail, employing appropriate analytical tools and language.
- An understanding that texts are constructed.
- An understanding of how social/cultural groups, events and issues are represented in media texts.
- An understanding of how audiences respond to and interpret texts.
- In order to do this, students will also be expected to have studied a range of different representations within texts, including:
- Gender (for example the different ways in which men and women are represented by the media)
- Ethnicity (for example through a study of the positive and negative representations of people from different ethnic backgrounds in news coverage and film texts).
- Age (for example the representations of teenagers/youth and older people)
- Issues (for example issues raised by magazines articles such as size zero)
- Events (for example the news coverage of events)
- Local, regional and national representations (definitions and comparisons)
The unit contains three key areas of emphasis: textual analysis, representation and
audience.
It is expected that the teaching of these areas will be combined through
the study of selected texts. It is not intended that they should be “taught” separately.
1. TEXTUAL ANALYSIS
Students will be required to analyse texts showing an understanding of why elements of the text are selected and how the text is constructed. It is essential that students are taught to transfer skills across a range of different examples. In this way they will be able to analyse any text they are exposed to under examination conditions.
Study of the following concepts are recommended.
GENRE
- Generic conventions – repetition, typicality, themes and key signifiers
- Mise-en-Scene
- Settings and Locations
- Characteristic plots
- In particular students should consider how conventions are used AND how they are challenged, adapted and combined.
NARRATIVE
- Construction
- Structure
- Key codes such as action and enigma
- The role of characters within the narrative
SIGNS AND CODES
Students will be expected to have an understanding of TECHNICAL CODES and how
meanings are created through them. It is important that students can do more than name the
code; they need to be able to discuss how and why it has been used. Where appropriate,
students should be aware of the following technical codes and their use:
- Camera shots/angles
- Photographic techniques
- Framing
- Editing
- Lighting
- Special effects
Students should also be aware of AUDIO CODES, in particular the use of diegetic and non
diegetic sound through:
- Dialogue
- Music
- Sound effects
In the study of print based texts students should also consider the following through the use
of VISUAL and WRITTEN codes:
- Design / layout e.g. graphics, use of colour etc.
- Typography
- Language
- Persuasive techniques
- Register and mode of address
Note: although in the Specification we use terminology like codes, which emphasises a
structuralist heritage, this is not the only approach Centres may wish to introduce their
students to. The important factor is that students understand that texts go through a process
of selection and construction and that they can, generally, be interpreted differently by
different audiences.
2. REPRESENTATIONS
Centres may wish to encourage their students to examine a range of positive and negative
representations across media forms. In examining the nature of representations (how they
have been selected, constructed, mediated and anchored) and exploring how they are
interpreted and responded to by audiences, students may develop an understanding of
ideologies, for example:
- Ways of seeing the world – ideologies as values, attitudes and beliefs
- How ideologies are conveyed through texts
- How ideologies have affected the production of the texts
- How dominant ideologies are reinforced and/or challenged by texts.
Key Questions:
What kind of world is being constructed by media texts?
Students might consider the following points:
- That the “reality” of the world presented by texts is constructed
- That audiences respond to texts according to their experience and knowledge of the world presented to them
- How are stereotypes used as a shorthand to represent certain groups of people?
Students might consider the following point:
That makers of media texts use audience recognition of types to transmit messages rapidly. Most media texts (e.g. films, magazine articles, television programmes and advertising) only have a short time to establish characters and as a result offer limited representations.
Who is in control of the text? Whose ideas and values are expressed through the representations?
Students might consider the following points:
Texts are constructed and often manipulated by the producers (and organisations behind them). For example: newspaper articles, films, television programmes.
A process of mediation occurs in the construction of media texts, for example a news report.
How will audiences interpret the representation within texts? Who are the texts aimed at?
Students might consider the following points:
That an understanding of representation is linked to the cultural experiences and
the backgrounds of the audience.
It is also affected by the audience relationship with, for example, the individual star/ event /environment etc.
What ideologies / messages might be contained within the representation/s?
Students might:
- Be aware of the view being presented through the text.
- Question whether the particular interests / views of the world are being challenged, reinforced or promoted.
- Consider whether the texts are promoting, challenging or judging the roles of gender / ethnicity/ age etc.
3. AUDIENCE RESPONSES
The focus for this question will be on the relationship between the text and the audience.
The emphasis will be on the social and cultural experiences that affect audiences’ responses
to the text and it is therefore important that the initial focus is on the range of possible
responses to texts and not audience theories – although the analysis of the response may
lead to an exploration of relevant audience response theories.
Students might like to explore:
- The different ways in which audiences can be described e.g. social / cultural background (demographics)
- active and passive
- interactive users
- industry categories ( such as those used by advertisers e.g. aspirers, achievers etc.)
- How texts position audiences through the use of:
- Modes of address
- Representation/s
- Narrative/s
How different audiences respond to, use and interpret texts, through the use of relevant theories which underpin the following: Preferred ; Negotiated; Oppositional Readings
Active and Passive responses
Reception Analysis
What will students be required to do in the examination?
They will be given stimulus material taken from a range of examples as detailed in the
specification.
For Question 1 students will focus on an analysis of the stimulus material.
For Questions 2 and 3 they will respond to questions on representation and audience.
These questions will explicitly require students to incorporate references to the detailed examples in
their responses. Students who rely solely on the stimulus material in their answers will
obviously produce a limited response.
A SAMPLE TEACHING APPROACH BASED ON THE ANALYSIS OF THE REPRESENTATIONS OF MEN IN THE MEDIA
Clearly there are several different ways for Centres to approach the teaching of this unit. For
example, it could be approached through a study of texts which clearly incorporates an
exploration of representation; or it could be approached through a study of one of the
specified representation areas (for example gender or ethnicity). The best approach in
practice may be to combine these two approaches wherever possible.
This sample teaching approach will encourage students to consider how different media
representations are encoded in media texts and interpreted differently by different
audiences.
As a starting point students could consider stereotypes and ‘categories’ of male
representation, for example:
The action hero
Macho man
The liberal, sensitive ‘new man’
The ‘lad’
The professional
The inept ‘bungler’
Various adaptations of these categories are found in a range of media texts – and this is a
good basis from which to start a discussion of stereotypes.
Possible areas to cover in detail may include:
Men in Magazines
Men’s Health – the ‘ideal’ man, male narcissism and notions of superiority,
references to women in a ‘seemingly’ sensitive way, quick – fix problem solving (
getting a six pack ), concerns about body image etc., the ‘new man’ and his
concerns. Interesting because it always has a man on the front cover.
GQ, FHM – earlier examples of the magazines attempted to portray the ‘new man’
but less sensitive towards women, good humoured advice on relationships etc. GQ is
aimed at the (supposedly) smartly dressed, sophisticated man but still lot of images
of women
Nuts, Zoo – ideas of laddishness, references to women, use of language and mode
of address, reinforcement of stereotypes
Sugar ‘Ladmag’ – girls’ view of boys, how boys are represented to a younger
audience in a girl’s magazine
Audience issues:
How are men represented to the reader?
How are men represented to women readers?
How are women represented in the magazines?
What are the underlying values and attitudes contained within the magazine?Additional resources
Send for press packs from the magazines – they contain lots of useful information about
readership etc.
Look at the websites – Men’s Health and Nuts give an interesting reader profile
‘The Media Teacher’s Book’ by Julian McDougall has a good chapter on men’s magazines
Media, Gender and Identity by David Gauntlett has a very relevant chapter on gender in
magazines. There is also a related website with up to date information. This has two good
interviews between David Gauntlett , Amy Jankowicz and Derrick Cameron on men in
magazines. www.theory.org.uk
Laura Barton’s Guardian article ‘It’s all gone tits up’ also offers an interesting perspective!
The Guardian, Saturday January 17th, 2004
Men on Television
Situation comedies featuring well-intentioned but inept men in terms of
relationships and parenting e.g. Nicholas Lyndhurst in After You’ve Gone, Hugh
Dennis in Outnumbered, Robert Lindsay in My Family
News/documentary programmes. Men as experts, in power, opinion leaders.
Featuring men defined by their professional status and their economic standing.
Seen to be important and valuable by society.
Television dramas e.g. crime – strong, silent types who are in charge, emotional,
often in touch with their feminine side ( e.g. CSI), attractive to women but who are
also often flawed in some way e.g. drink problem, shady past etc.
Men in Advertising
Fragrance ads – the ‘beautiful man’, notions of body image, attractive to both
sexes. Explicit nature of some campaigns e.g Aspirational appeal for both
genders. Lynx campaign is interesting in looking at man as the ‘object’ for the
woman.
DIY, Homemaker ads – ‘it does what it says on the tin’. ‘basic’ man. Often
featuring inept, challenged representation of a man e.g. Flash who needs an
easy solution to domestic problems.
Car adverts – man in control of machine, ideas of power, often seen to be
overcoming adverse environment e.g. fire, desert etc.
Family man – cereal ads etc. still usually good looking.
Consider adverts that play upon and also challenge conventional stereotypes
Audience issues: How do the persuasive techniques used by advertisers work
upon a range of audiences?
Additional resources:
Websites for specific products – they often discuss strategies, aims and target audiences
Media and Meaning, an Introduction, Stewart et al; The Media Students’ Book, Branston
and Stafford. Good chapter on advertising and audience categoriesMen in Film
The ‘action hero’ – lots of examples here from superheroes to Bruce Willis and
‘thinking women’s’ heroes like Harrison Ford and George Clooney. An interesting
example is DareDevil - taken from a comic book character where the superhero is
blind. Bond films are interesting to study – how has he and the women around him
changed?
Macho man – categorized through his belief in himself and his relationship with
women. Can be a comedy character. X-Men , The Matrix – men dealing with
powerful female counterparts. Russell Crowe in Gladiator – mach hero with
emotional side.
The romantic hero who battles through adversity to ‘get the girl’ e.g. Hugh Grant.
Also notions here of what it is to be ‘English’.
The loser – men in ‘mid life crisis’ who inspire empathy but also achieve an element
of success, usually in a relationship, within the narrative of the film. E.g. Sideways,
Lost in Translation, American Beauty
The ‘bad guy’ – villains and their roles
Audience issues:
How is the representation of the character constructed visually?
How is the audience positioned in terms of responding to the character – does this position
changes during the film?
How are audience responses manipulated during the film?
Different audience responses to aspects of the film e.g. violence
Additional Resources
Men In Film , BFI
Useful section in Media, Gender and Identity, David Gauntlett
General resources:
Representation – An Introduction, Roy Stafford, BFI
Media, Gender and Identity, David Gauntlett. Interesting section – ‘Ten things wrong with the
media effects model’
Imelda Whelan, Overloaded: Popular Culture and the Future of Feminism
‘The Media Teacher’s Book’ by Julian McDougall
Understanding Representation ed. Wendy Helsby
Media and Meaning, an Introduction, Stewart et al
The Media Students’ Book. Branston and Stafford
Websites:
www.mediaknowall.com
www.allisonmedia.net
www.theory.org.uk
www.aber.ac.uk/media
www.media.guardian.co.uk
